Children's Language Acquisition

Children's Language Acquisition

Critical Period

•  A span of time in one's life within which one must acquire a first language
• Full profeciency can never be required if no language is acquired during the critical period.
• The exact cut-off age is not certain but is before puberty.

Evidence of Critical Period

• Second-Language Learners - Johnson & Newport on Chinese and Korean born students.
• First-Language Learners - "Genie", "Chelsea", Deaf children born to hearing parents.

Stephen Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition

Stephen Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition

"Language acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious grammatical rules, and does not require tedious drill." Stephen Krashen
"Acquisition requires meaningful interaction in the target language - natural communication - in which speakers are concerned not with the form of their utterances but with the messages they are conveying and understanding." Stephen Krashen
"The best methods are therefore those that supply 'comprehensible input' in low anxiety situations, containing messages that students really want to hear. These methods do not force early production in the second language, but allow students to produce when they are 'ready', recognizing that improvement comes from supplying communicative and comprehensible input, and not from forcing and correcting production." Stephen Krashen
"In the real world, conversations with sympathetic native speakers who are willing to help the acquirer understand are very helpful." Stephen Krashen

Introduction
Stephen Krashen (University of Southern California) is an expert in the field of linguistics, specializing in theories of language acquisition and development. Much of his recent research has involved the study of non-English and bilingual language acquisition. During the past 20 years, he has published well over 100 books and articles and has been invited to deliver over 300 lectures at universities throughout the United States and Canada.
This is a brief description of Krashen's widely known and well accepted theory of second language acquisition, which has had a large impact in all areas of second language research and teaching since the 1980s.
Description of Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition
Krashen's theory of second language acquisition consists of five main hypotheses:

• the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis,
• the Monitor hypothesis,
• the Natural Order hypothesis,
• the Input hypothesis,
• and the Affective Filter hypothesis.

The Acquisition-Learning distinction is the most fundamental of all the hypotheses in Krashen's theory and the most widely known among linguists and language practitioners.According to Krashen there are two independent systems of second language performance: 'the acquired system' and 'the learned system'. The 'acquired system' or 'acquisition' is the product of a subconscious process very similar to the process children undergo when they acquire their first language. It requires meaningful interaction in the target language - natural communication - in which speakers are concentrated not in the form of their utterances, but in the communicative act. The 'learned system' or 'learning' is the product of formal instruction and it comprises a conscious process which results in conscious knowledge 'about' the language, for example knowledge of grammar rules. According to Krashen 'learning' is less important than 'acquisition'. (Veja o texto ao lado e também outra página em português sobre Acquisition/Learning). The Monitor hypothesis explains the relationship between acquisition and learning and defines the influence of the latter on the former. The monitoring function is the practical result of the learned grammar. According to Krashen, the acquisition system is the utterance initiator, while the learning system performs the role of the 'monitor' or the 'editor'. The 'monitor' acts in a planning, editing and correcting function when three specific conditions are met: that is, the second language learner has sufficient time at his/her disposal, he/she focuses on form or thinks about correctness, and he/she knows the rule. It appears that the role of conscious learning is somewhat limited in second language performance. According to Krashen, the role of the monitor is - or should be - minor, being used only to correct deviations from 'normal' speech and to give speech a more 'polished' appearance. Krashen also suggests that there is individual variation among language learners with regard to 'monitor' use. He distinguishes those learners that use the 'monitor' all the time (over-users); those learners who have not learned or who prefer not to use their conscious knowledge (under-users); and those learners that use the 'monitor' appropriately (optimal users). An evaluation of the person's psychological profile can help to determine to what group they belong. Usually extroverts are under-users, while introverts and perfectionists are over-users. Lack of self-confidence is frequently related to the over-use of the 'monitor'. The Role of Grammar in Krashen's View According to Krashen, the study of the structure of the language can have general educational advantages and values that high schools and colleges may want to include in their language programs. It should be clear, however, that examining irregularity, formulating rules and teaching complex facts about the target language is not language teaching, but rather is "language appreciation" or linguistics. The only instance in which the teaching of grammar can result in language acquisition (and proficiency) is when the students are interested in the subject and the target language is used as a medium of instruction. Very often, when this occurs, both teachers and students are convinced that the study of formal grammar is essential for second language acquisition, and the teacher is skillful enough to present explanations in the target language so that the students understand. In other words, the teacher talk meets the requirements for comprehensible input and perhaps with the students' participation the classroom becomes an environment suitable for acquisition. Also, the filter is low in regard to the language of explanation, as the students' conscious efforts are usually on the subject matter, on what is being talked about, and not the medium. This is a subtle point. In effect, both teachers and students are deceiving themselves. They believe that it is the subject matter itself, the study of grammar, that is responsible for the students' progress, but in reality their progress is coming from the medium and not the message. Any subject matter that held their interest would do just as well. The Natural Order hypothesis is based on research findings (Dulay & Burt, 1974; Fathman, 1975; Makino, 1980 cited in Krashen, 1987) which suggested that the acquisition of grammatical structures follows a 'natural order' which is predictable. For a given language, some grammatical structures tend to be acquired early while others late. This order seemed to be independent of the learners' age, L1 background, conditions of exposure, and although the agreement between individual acquirers was not always 100% in the studies, there were statistically significant similarities that reinforced the existence of a Natural Order of language acquisition. Krashen however points out that the implication of the natural order hypothesis is not that a language program syllabus should be based on the order found in the studies. In fact, he rejects grammatical sequencing when the goal is language acquisition. The Input hypothesis is Krashen's attempt to explain how the learner acquires a second language. In other words, this hypothesis is Krashen's explanation of how second language acquisition takes place. So, the Input hypothesis is only concerned with 'acquisition', not 'learning'. According to this hypothesis, the learner improves and progresses along the 'natural order' when he/she receives second language 'input' that is one step beyond his/her current stage of linguistic competence. For example, if a learner is at a stage 'i', then acquisition takes place when he/she is exposed to 'Comprehensible Input' that belongs to level 'i + 1'. Since not all of the learners can be at the same level of linguistic competence at the same time, Krashen suggests that natural communicative input is the key to designing a syllabus, ensuring in this way that each learner will receive some 'i + 1' input that is appropriate for his/her current stage of linguistic competence. Finally, the fifth hypothesis, the Affective Filter hypothesis, embodies Krashen's view that a number of 'affective variables' play a facilitative, but non-causal, role in second language acquisition. These variables include: motivation, self-confidence and anxiety. Krashen claims that learners with high motivation, self-confidence, a good self-image, and a low level of anxiety are better equipped for success in second language acquisition. Low motivation, low self-esteem, and debilitating anxiety can combine to 'raise' the affective filter and form a 'mental block' that prevents comprehensible input from being used for acquisition. In other words, when the filter is 'up' it impedes language acquisition. On the other hand, positive affect is necessary, but not sufficient on its own, for acquisition to take place.

Learning Objectives

Learning Objectives

A task analysis itemizes each discrete skill found in a job, but it only provides end-goal statements. Each of the end-goal statements provides the basis for a terminal performance objective. The designer must then determine the prerequisite skills required for the task and create learning objectives for each behavior or skill.

For example, the task might read, “Be familiar with personal computers and know how to use Word, Excel, and PowerPoint.” The course goal might read, “The learner will be able to operate a personal computer and use the three main software packages.” This in turn could be broken down into three terminal learning objectives, with each one having one or more enabling objectives to support it:

Performance Objective One

Terminal objective — Given a personal computer, Word, and printer, create a two-page document that is correctly formatted with no spelling mistakes.

Enabling objective — Spell check the document by using the spell checker. No spelling mistakes are allowed.

Performance Objective Two

Terminal objective — Given a personal computer, printer, and Excel, create a spreadsheet that incorporates basic math formulas.

Enabling objective — Create a column of at least 10 numbers that uses the SUM formula feature.

Enabling objective — Create a formula that uses three or more of Excel's math features (such a +, -, or /) to manipulate one or more of the other numbers on the spreadsheet.

Performance Objective Three

Terminal objective — Given a personal computer, printer, and PowerPoint, create a presentation with at least 10 slides.

Enabling objective — Embed at least four cliparts into the slide presentation. Two must be from PowerPoint's clipart collection and two must be from an outside source (e.g. created with Photoshop or ret rived from the web).

ABCD Components

Heinich, Molenda, and Russell (1989) wrote that there are four components of every objective:

• Audience — who is the target of this objective, and what are the learner's characteristics. In the ISD process, this is normally covered in the Entry Behaviorssection.
• Behavior — what behavior is expected from the learner to show that he or she has learned the material. Words like “learn,” “appreciate,” and “know” are vague. Instead, use action verbs like “identify,” “demonstrate,” and “list”.
• Conditions — under what conditions will the learner be expected to demonstrate her knowledge. Will the learner be given graphs, illustrations, reference material, or must she perform from memory?
• Degree —the standard by which acceptable performance will be judged.

The Three Main Characteristics of Good Objectives

Objectives should identify a learning outcome — An objective that states, “the learner will learn Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs by studying pages 100 to 115” refers not to an outcome of instruction but to an activity of learning. The objective needs to state what the learner is to perform , not how the learner learns. For example, “The learner will recite the five steps in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs.” Evidence of whether the learners have learned the material lies not in watching them read about it but by listening to them explain the principles in their own words.

Objectives should be consistent with course goals — For example, including a objective about the history of personal computers in a word processing course does not match the stated course goal of “correctly use Microsoft Word.” Trainers sometimes try to teach what they think is important or like to instruct, rather than what the learners need to know. When objectives and goals are not consistent, two avenues of approach are available: change (or eliminate) the objective, or change the course goal.

Objectives should be precise — It's sometimes difficult to strike a balance between too much and too little precision in an objective. There is a fine line between choosing objectives that reflect an important and meaningful outcome of instruction, objectives that trivialize information into isolated facts, and objectives that are extremely vague. Remember, the purpose of an objective is to give different people the same understanding of the desired instructional outcome.

Example

Goal: Trains learners to instruct other learners in microcomputer applications.

• Task: Conducts training and educational programs in specialized applications of microcomputer systems.
• Conditions: Given a computer lab, computer applications, 1 to 4 learners, training and computer references, training forms, and little or no supervision. (Note: computer lab consists of five networked personal computers, one printer, and the required desks, chairs and accessories)
• Performance Measure: The learners must be trained to the required performance standard listed in the training outline within the allotted time. Non-performers must be identified and given reinforcement training.
• Learning Steps:
  1. Receives class roster from Human Resources.
  2. Obtains necessary training documentation (i.e. Lesson Plan, Course Management Plan) and supplies (i.e. Learner Guides, slides, overhead transparencies) for conducting the class.
  3. Distributes the Learner Guides prior to class date.
  4. Checks computer lab prior to class to ensure all instructional items and equipment are present and in good working order.
  5. Arranges for delivery of any needed audiovisual equipment.
  6. Prepares for instructional role by rehearsing.
  7. Starts class on schedule.
  8. Presents material listed in Lesson Plan and follows the general outline.
  9. Uses the following traits and techniques while conducting the instruction: flexibility, spontaneity, provides empathy and compassion, uses good questioning techniques, is an active listener, gets feedback, uses positive reinforcement, and provides counseling.
  10. Facilitates, directs and guides the learners towards finding the correct answers to their questions, rather than being an answering service.
  11. Provides coaching.
  12. Demonstrates new or difficult material in a manner that may be seen and understood by the learners.
  13. Evaluates learners in the prescribed manner.
  14. Grades tests and distributes scores as required.
  15. Completes all learning activities and required functions during the allotted time period.
  16. Completes class roster and other forms at end of training session and delivers them to the training department.
  17. Returns checked-out audiovisual equipment at end of training session.
  18. Returns unused supplies and orders additional supplies if needed.
  19. Makes arrangements for the repair or replacement of damaged equipment.
  20. Ensures the computer lab is in good condition for the next training session.
  21. Reviews class just given, searching for new training ideas, and then makes arrangements to incorporate new training material into the lesson.

Second Set of Examples

NOTE: These learning objectives are presented in several different formats to show the variety of methods that can be used. Each training activity should define their own construction standard. Ensure they are clear and contain: one observable action, at least one measurable criterion, and the conditions of performance.

Terminal Learning Objective: At the end of the training period the Training Specialist Candidate (TSC) will be able to train learners in microcomputer applications.

First Enabling Learning Objectives (ELO): Given a computer lab with required computer applications, training documents, and computer references, prepare the computer lab for a class session. The computers and printer must be checked for proper operation and to ensure that the required software applications are loaded. Each workstation must have a computer user manual, user manual for each software application, and two blank floppy disks. The correct training outline, course management plan (CMP), required number of learner guides, and other training material as outlined in the CMP must be on hand. If the lesson plan requires audiovisual aids, then the required equipment must be checked out from Supply and the correct audiovisual courseware must be obtained. At the end of the training session all material and equipment will be returned.

Learning Steps:

1. Obtain the necessary training documentation (i.e. Lesson Plan, CMP) and supplies (i.e. Learner Guides, slides, overhead transparencies) for conducting the class.
2. Distribute the Learner Guides prior to class date by stapling a completed forwarding slip on each guide and placing them in the Training Coordinator's inbox.
3. Check the computer lab to ensure all instructional items and equipment are present.
4. Check the operation and the presence of the required software of each computer by starting it up, running the application, and printing a test document.
5. Checks lesson plan for audiovisual requirements and arranges for delivery of any needed audiovisual equipment.
6. Return any audiovisual equipment at end of training session
7. Ensures the computer lab is in good condition for the next training session.

Second ELO: Conduct a computer application lecture in a computer lab with required computer applications, 4 learners, training outline, learner guides, and course management plan. All material in the training outline must be presented in a clear and understandable manner. Questions must be asked by using the APC method. The class must start within one minute of the planned start time, and end within two minute of the planned end time. Uses flexibility and spontaneity during the class.

Learning Steps

1. Starts class on schedule, give or take one minute.
2. Presents material in lesson plan in a clear and legible manner and follows the general outline.
3. Questions learners using the APC method. (Ask the question, Pause 5 seconds, Call on someone)
4. Is flexibility by adapting the training program to meet the learners' needs.
5. Provides spontaneity by not presenting the material in a canned or contrived manner.
6. Ends class on schedule, give or take two minutes.

Third ELO: The Training Specialist Candidate, given required computer applications, 4 learners, training outline, and course management plan, will conduct a computer demonstration in a computer lab that follows the training outline and allows all the learners to see and hear the demonstration. Questions must be asked to the learners to ensure their understanding. Must use empathy and compassion throughout the class.

Learning Steps:

1. Starts class on schedule.
2. Demonstrates a new or difficult material in a manner that may be seen and understood by all the learners.
3. Questions learners using the APC method.
4. Provides empathy by perceiving the learner's views during difficult exercises.
5. Provides compassion by alleviating stress when it is not conductive to the training program. 
6. Ends class on schedule.

Fourth ELO: Deliver a hands-on-training class about a computer application to four learners. Given a computer lab, required computer applications, training outline, learner guides, and course management plan, the material in the training outline must be presented in a manner that allows coaching of all learners while they are practicing. Listens actively and gets feedback throughout the class.

Learning Steps:

1. Starts class on schedule.
2. Provides coaching during hands-on-training.
3. Actively listens with a purpose in order to understand the learners.
4. Gets feedback by watching for verbal and nonverbal responses.
5. Ends class on schedule.

Fifth ELO: Score a computer application performance test to four learners. Given a computer lab with required computer applications, four performance tests, performance test score sheet, training outline, and course management plan. The performance test must be scored to standards. Non-performers must be identified and the required action taken as listed in the company training policy. Uses positive reinforcement and provides counseling during the evaluation.

Learning Steps:

1. Reads the performance test directions to the learners and ensures they understand it.
2. Passes out and starts the performance test.
3. Evaluates learners in the prescribed manner.
4. Scores the performance test.
5. Provides directive and nondirective counseling.
6. Uses positive reinforcement on the learners retaking the performance test.
7. Identifies the non-performers and takes the appropriate action.

Notice how a large learning objective was broken down into smaller, more manageable objectives. Also, the objectives do not give a specific software application. The Training Specialist Candidate's skills and knowledge about specific software applications should be given in separate tasks. What the designer is implying is that once a person knows how to instruct a software application, he or she should be able to instruct almost any software application that he or she becomes proficient in. In other words, the skills are transferable.

References

Heinich, R., Molenda, M.& Russell, J. D. (1989). Instructional Media: And the new technologies of instruction. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co.

Performance and Learning Objectives in Instructional Design

In the analysis phase, the backwards planning model was used to discover what needs to be trained to reach the performance requirements of a business. The information that was collected is now used design the learning platform. And as noted in the Introduction to Design, the starting point is normally the performance or learning objectives:

Learning and performance objectives are created so that we know exactly what the learners must be able to do once they have completed the training process. Of all the activities within the ISD process, this is normally considered one of the more critical steps in that well constructed learning objectives that align with the business unit's requirements allow:

• The instructors to know what needs to be taught
• The learners know what they are supposed to learn
• The managers know what they are investing their training dollars in.

Learning objectives form the basis for what is to be learned, how well it is to be performed, and under what conditions it is to be performed.
While there are specific objectives that means different things, such as educational, instructional, learning, behavioral, and performance objectives (Saettler, 1990); most instructional designers generally use two terms — terminal or performance objectives and enabling or learning objectives (Mager, 1975):

• A Terminal or Performance Objective is developed for each of the tasks selected in the learning program. A terminal objective is at the highest level of learning (KSA) appropriate to the human performance requirements a student will accomplish. 
• Each terminal performance objective is then analyzed to determine if it needs one or more Enabling or Learning Objectives. These supporting objectives allow the Terminal Objective to be broken down into smaller, more manageable objectives. Each enabling learning objective measures an element of the terminal performance objective.

For example, a terminal objective might teach a salesperson how to sale a product, while an enabling objective might teach the salesperson to overcome objections that a customer has about that product.

The Three Parts of an Objective

Every performance or learning objective contains at least three parts:

Observable Action (task)

This describes the observable performance or behavior. An action means a verb must be in the statement, for example “type a letter” or “lift a load.” Each objective covers one behavior, hence, normally only one verb should be present. If there are more than one behaviors or the behaviors are complicated, then the objective should be broken down into one or more enabling learning objectives that supports the main terminal learning objective.

At Least One Measurable Criterion (standard)

This states the level of acceptable performance of the task in terms of quantity, quality, time limitations, etc. This will answer any question such as “How many?” “How fast?” or “How well?” For example, “At least 5 will be produced”, “Within 10 minutes”, and “Without error.” There can be more than one measurable criterion. Do not fall into the trap of putting in a time constraint because you think there should be a time limit or you cannot easily find another measurable criterion — use a time limit only if required under normal working standards.

Conditions of performance

Describes the actual conditions under which the task will occur or be observed. Also, it identifies the tools, procedures, materials, aids, or facilities to be used in performing the task. This is best expressed with a prepositional phase such as “without reference to a manual” or “by checking a chart.”

Examples of Performance Objectives

Example 1:

Write a customer reply letter with no spelling mistakes by using a word processor.

• Observable Action: Write a customer reply letter
• Measurable Criteria: with no spelling mistakes
• Conditions of Performance: using a word processor

NOTE: If more that one type of word processor or computer is used in the organization, then it should be more specific. For example: Given a personal computer, Word for Windows, and printer, create a printed customer reply letter with no spelling mistakes. The conditions of performance are “Given a personal computer, Word for Windows, and printer.” Generally speaking, the larger the organization or the more technical the task, the more specific the conditions of performance must be spelled out.

Example 2:

Copy a table from a spreadsheet into a word processor document within 3 minutes and without reference to the manual.

• Observable Action: Copy a table from a spreadsheet into a word processor document
• Measurable Criteria: within 3 minutes
• Conditions of Performance: without referencing the manual

Note: The Conditions of performance may also include a variable as shown in the next example.

Example 3:

Smile at all customers, even when exhausted, unless the customer is irate.

• Observable action: Smile
• Measurable Criteria: at all customers
• Conditions: even when exhausted
• Variable: unless the customer is irate

Note: Sometimes its helpful to start with the phase “After training, the worker will be able to...”

Example 4:

After training, the worker will be able to load a dump truck within 3 loads with a scooploader, in the hours of darkness, unless the work area is muddy.

• Observable Action: load a dump truck
• Measurable Criteria: within 3 loads
• Conditions: with a scooploader in the hours of darkness
• Variable: unless the work area is muddy

The Performance objective spells out the exact training requirement. Without them, time and money could be wasted by training workers to type at 65 WPM when all that is required is to be able to type at 35 WPM, or training employees to sell an item to an easy going customer when what they really need to know is how to sell an item to a skeptical customer, or training them to enter data into a spreadsheet application when the actual job requires them to enter data into a customized database package.
A clearly formulated objective has two dimensions, a behavioral aspect and a content aspect. The behavioral aspect is the action the learner must perform, while the content is the product or service that is produced by the learner's actions. For example, “the student will learn forklift operations by studying the operator's manual” refers not to an outcome of training but to an activity of learning. If you observed the student reading, you could make no judgment if he or she was actually learning (behavioral aspect) and there is no service produced by the learner's action (content aspect).
A better example would be “Given a forklift, load a pallet onto a trailer without any safety errors.” In this example, the behavioral aspect is loading a trailer, while the content aspect is a pallet placed on the trailer.
Notice that learning objectives look a lot like tasks. A task analysis itemizes each discrete skill found in a job, but it provides only end goal statements. While learning objectives spell out the prerequisite skills and makes them the course objectives.

Using the Correct Verb

The type of verb that is used in the task statement, determines the level or of learning (or degree of difficulty) that must achieved. For example, being able to criticize a process shows a much more complex behavior than simply being able to identify a process. Bloom's Taxonomy and the People, Data, and Things Checklist can assist you in choosing the correct verb for the task you want to train.

The 6 Levels of Learning

Levels of Learning

Tell me and I will forget, Show me and I may remember, Involve me and I will understand. —Ancient Chinese Proverb

I can’t keep this book down! The book, entitled Turning Training into Learning captures the heart of training, as it should be. It gives hope to any teacher, speaker, or trainer, who frustrated by how little people apply of what they learn, wonders if there is any point labouring for another lesson.

 Learning is a process and anyone who purports to teach must labour to cause their students to learn. While teachers are not responsible about what the students do with the knowledge, they are responsible for motivating them to want to do something more than just occupy space and take notes.

The teacher's goal  is to motivate the student to want to navigate through the following stages.

Stage 1: Rejection. The learner rejects the knowledge fully. Help the learner recognise the detrimental effect of negative filtering.

Stage 2: Resisting. The learner rejects the knowledge partly. Help the learner begin to unlearn some of the known information that lifts negative filters.

Stage 3: Reservation. The learner accepts the knowledge partly. Demonstrate the benefit of the new information.

Stage 4: Recognition. The learner accepts the knowledge fully. Encourage them to follow through their learning.

Stage 5: Renewal. The learner assimilates the knowledge partially. Encourage them to teach their learning.

Stage 6: Revolution. The learner assimilates the knowledge fully. Rejoice! You have now taught!

Activating thought: One who teaches another learns twice. —Training Axiom

Language Acquisition

Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning Domains

The Three Types of Learning

There is more than one type of learning. A committee of colleges, led by Benjamin Bloom (1956), identified three domains of educational activities:

• Cognitive: mental skills (Knowledge)
• Affective: growth in feelings or emotional areas (Attitude)
• Psychomotor: manual or physical skills (Skills)

Since the work was produced by higher education, the words tend to be a little bigger than we normally use. Domains can be thought of as categories. Trainers often refer to these three categories as KSA (Knowledge, Skills, and Attitude). This taxonomy of learning behaviors can be thought of as “the goals of the learning process.” That is, after a learning episode, the learner should have acquired new skills, knowledge, and/or attitudes.

The committee also produced an elaborate compilation for the cognitive and affective domains, but none for the psychomotor domain. Their explanation for this oversight was that they have little experience in teaching manual skills within the college level (I guess they never thought to check with their sports or drama departments).

This compilation divides the three domains into subdivisions, starting from the simplest behavior to the most complex. The divisions outlined are not absolutes and there are other systems or hierarchies that have been devised in the educational and training world. However, Bloom's taxonomy is easily understood and is probably the most widely applied one in use today.

Cognitive Domain

The cognitive domain (Bloom, 1956) involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills. This includes the recall or recognition of specific facts, procedural patterns, and concepts that serve in the development of intellectual abilities and skills. There are six major categories, which are listed in order below, starting from the simplest behavior to the most complex. The categories can be thought of as degrees of difficulties. That is, the first ones must normally be mastered before the next ones can take place.

Category	Example and Key Words (verbs)
Knowledge: Recall data or information.	Examples: Recite a policy. Quote prices from memory to a customer. Knows the safety rules. Key Words: defines, describes, identifies, knows, labels, lists, matches, names, outlines, recalls, recognizes, reproduces, selects, states.
Comprehension: Understand the meaning, translation, interpolation, and interpretation of instructions and problems. State a problem in one's own words.	Examples: Rewrites the principles of test writing. Explain in one's own words the steps for performing a complex task. Translates an equation into a computer spreadsheet. Key Words: comprehends, converts, defends, distinguishes, estimates, explains, extends, generalizes, gives an example, infers, interprets, paraphrases, predicts, rewrites, summarizes, translates.
Application: Use a concept in a new situation or unprompted use of an abstraction. Applies what was learned in the classroom into novel situations in the work place.	Examples: Use a manual to calculate an employee's vacation time. Apply laws of statistics to evaluate the reliability of a written test. Key Words: applies, changes, computes, constructs, demonstrates, discovers, manipulates, modifies, operates, predicts, prepares, produces, relates, shows, solves, uses.
Analysis: Separates material or concepts into component parts so that its organizational structure may be understood. Distinguishes between facts and inferences.	Examples: Troubleshoot a piece of equipment by using logical deduction. Recognize logical fallacies in reasoning. Gathers information from a department and selects the required tasks for training. Key Words: analyzes, breaks down, compares, contrasts, diagrams, deconstructs, differentiates, discriminates, distinguishes, identifies, illustrates, infers, outlines, relates, selects, separates.
Synthesis: Builds a structure or pattern from diverse elements. Put parts together to form a whole, with emphasis on creating a new meaning or structure.	Examples: Write a company operations or process manual. Design a machine to perform a specific task. Integrates training from several sources to solve a problem. Revises and process to improve the outcome. Key Words: categorizes, combines, compiles, composes, creates, devises, designs, explains, generates, modifies, organizes, plans, rearranges, reconstructs, relates, reorganizes, revises, rewrites, summarizes, tells, writes.
Evaluation: Make judgments about the value of ideas or materials.	Examples: Select the most effective solution. Hire the most qualified candidate. Explain and justify a new budget. Key Words: appraises, compares, concludes, contrasts, criticizes, critiques, defends, describes, discriminates, evaluates, explains, interprets, justifies, relates, summarizes, supports.

Affective Domain

The affective domain (Krathwohl, Bloom, Masia, 1973) includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. The five major categories are listed from the simplest behavior to the most complex:

Category	Example and Key Words (verbs)
Receiving Phenomena: Awareness, willingness to hear, selected attention.	Examples: Listen to others with respect. Listen for and remember the name of newly introduced people. Key Words: asks, chooses, describes, follows, gives, holds, identifies, locates, names, points to, selects, sits, erects, replies, uses.
Responding to Phenomena: Active participation on the part of the learners. Attends and reacts to a particular phenomenon. Learning outcomes may emphasize compliance in responding, willingness to respond, or satisfaction in responding (motivation).	Examples:  Participates in class discussions.  Gives a presentation. Questions new ideals, concepts, models, etc. in order to fully understand them. Know the safety rules and practices them. Key Words: answers, assists, aids, complies, conforms, discusses, greets, helps, labels, performs, practices, presents, reads, recites, reports, selects, tells, writes.
Valuing: The worth or value a person attaches to a particular object, phenomenon, or behavior. This ranges from simple acceptance to the more complex state of commitment. Valuing is based on the internalization of a set of specified values, while clues to these values are expressed in the learner's overt behavior and are often identifiable.	Examples:  Demonstrates belief in the democratic process. Is sensitive towards individual and cultural differences (value diversity). Shows the ability to solve problems. Proposes a plan to social improvement and follows through with commitment. Informs management on matters that one feels strongly about. Key Words: completes, demonstrates, differentiates, explains, follows, forms, initiates, invites, joins, justifies, proposes, reads, reports, selects, shares, studies, works.
Organization: Organizes values into priorities by contrasting different values, resolving conflicts between them, and creating an unique value system.  The emphasis is on comparing, relating, and synthesizing values.	Examples:  Recognizes the need for balance between freedom and responsible behavior. Accepts responsibility for one's behavior. Explains the role of systematic planning in solving problems. Accepts professional ethical standards. Creates a life plan in harmony with abilities, interests, and beliefs. Prioritizes time effectively to meet the needs of the organization, family, and self. Key Words: adheres, alters, arranges, combines, compares, completes, defends, explains, formulates, generalizes, identifies, integrates, modifies, orders, organizes, prepares, relates, synthesizes.
Internalizing values (characterization): Has a value system that controls their behavior. The behavior is pervasive, consistent, predictable, and most importantly, characteristic of the learner. Instructional objectives are concerned with the student's general patterns of adjustment (personal, social, emotional).	Examples:  Shows self-reliance when working independently. Cooperates in group activities (displays teamwork). Uses an objective approach in problem solving.  Displays a professional commitment to ethical  practice on a daily basis. Revises judgments and changes behavior in light of new evidence. Values people for what they are, not how they look. Key Words: acts, discriminates, displays, influences, listens, modifies, performs, practices, proposes, qualifies, questions, revises, serves, solves, verifies.

Psychomotor Domain

The psychomotor domain (Simpson, 1972) includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution. The seven major categories are listed from the simplest behavior to the most complex:

Category	Example and Key Words (verbs)
Perception: The ability to use sensory cues to guide motor activity.  This ranges from sensory stimulation, through cue selection, to translation.	Examples:  Detects non-verbal communication cues. Estimate where a ball will land after it is thrown and then moving to the correct location to catch the ball. Adjusts heat of stove to correct temperature by smell and taste of food. Adjusts the height of the forks on a forklift by comparing where the forks are in relation to the pallet. Key Words: chooses, describes, detects, differentiates, distinguishes, identifies, isolates, relates, selects.
Set: Readiness to act. It includes mental, physical, and emotional sets. These three sets are dispositions that predetermine a person's response to different situations (sometimes called mindsets).	Examples:  Knows and acts upon a sequence of steps in a manufacturing process. Recognize one's abilities and limitations. Shows desire to learn a new process (motivation). NOTE: This subdivision of Psychomotor is closely related with the “Responding to phenomena” subdivision of the Affective domain. Key Words: begins, displays, explains, moves, proceeds, reacts, shows, states, volunteers.
Guided Response: The early stages in learning a complex skill that includes imitation and trial and error. Adequacy of performance is achieved by practicing.	Examples:  Performs a mathematical equation as demonstrated. Follows instructions to build a model. Responds hand-signals of instructor while learning to operate a forklift. Key Words: copies, traces, follows, react, reproduce, responds
Mechanism: This is the intermediate stage in learning a complex skill. Learned responses have become habitual and the movements can be performed with some confidence and proficiency.	Examples:  Use a personal computer. Repair a leaking faucet. Drive a car. Key Words: assembles, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches.
Complex Overt Response: The skillful performance of motor acts that involve complex movement patterns. Proficiency is indicated by a quick, accurate, and highly coordinated performance, requiring a minimum of energy. This category includes performing without hesitation, and automatic performance. For example, players are often utter sounds of satisfaction or expletives as soon as they hit a tennis ball or throw a football, because they can tell by the feel of the act what the result will produce.	Examples:  Maneuvers a car into a tight parallel parking spot. Operates a computer quickly and accurately. Displays competence while playing the piano. Key Words: assembles, builds, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches. NOTE: The Key Words are the same as Mechanism, but will have adverbs or adjectives that indicate that the performance is quicker, better, more accurate, etc.
Adaptation: Skills are well developed and the individual can modify movement patterns to fit special requirements.	Examples:  Responds effectively to unexpected experiences.  Modifies instruction to meet the needs of the learners. Perform a task with a machine that it was not originally intended to do (machine is not damaged and there is no danger in performing the new task). Key Words: adapts, alters, changes, rearranges, reorganizes, revises, varies.
Origination: Creating new movement patterns to fit a particular situation or specific problem. Learning outcomes emphasize creativity based upon highly developed skills.	Examples:  Constructs a new theory. Develops a new and comprehensive training programming. Creates a new gymnastic routine. Key Words: arranges, builds, combines, composes, constructs, creates, designs, initiate, makes, originates.

 

Other Psychomotor Domain Taxonomies

As mentioned earlier, the committee did not produce a compilation for the psychomotor domain model, but others have. The one discussed above is by Simpson (1972). There are two other popular versions:

Dave's (1975):

• Imitation — Observing and patterning behavior after someone else. Performance may be of low quality. Example: Copying a work of art.
• Manipulation — Being able to perform certain actions by following instructions and practicing. Example: Creating work on one's own, after taking lessons, or reading about it.
• Precision — Refining, becoming more exact. Few errors are apparent. Example: Working and reworking something, so it will be “just right.”
• Articulation — Coordinating a series of actions, achieving harmony and internal consistency. Example: Producing a video that involves music, drama, color, sound, etc.
• Naturalization — Having high level performance become natural, without needing to think much about it. Examples: Michael Jordan playing basketball, Nancy Lopez hitting a golf ball, etc.

Harrow's (1972):

• Reflex movements — Reactions that are not learned.
• Fundamental movements — Basic movements such as walking, or grasping.
• Perception — Response to stimuli such as visual, auditory, kinesthetic, or tactile discrimination.
• Physical abilities — Stamina that must be developed for further development such as strength and agility.
• Skilled movements — Advanced learned movements as one would find in sports or acting.
• No discursive communication — Effective body language, such as gestures and facial expressions.

Bloom's Revised Taxonomy

Lorin Anderson, a former student of Bloom, revisited the cognitive domain in the learning taxonomy in the mid-nineties and made some changes, with perhaps the two most prominent ones being, 1) changing the names in the six categories from noun to verb forms, and 2) slightly rearranging them (Pohl, 2000).

This new taxonomy reflects a more active form of thinking and is perhaps more accurate:

Category	Example and Key Words (verbs)
Remembering: Recall previous learned information.	Examples: Recite a policy. Quote prices from memory to a customer. Knows the safety rules. Key Words: defines, describes, identifies, knows, labels, lists, matches, names, outlines, recalls, recognizes, reproduces, selects, states.
Understanding: Comprehending the meaning, translation, interpolation, and interpretation of instructions and problems. State a problem in one's own words.	Examples: Rewrites the principles of test writing. Explain in one's own words the steps for performing a complex task. Translates an equation into a computer spreadsheet. Key Words: comprehends, converts, defends, distinguishes, estimates, explains, extends, generalizes, gives an example, infers, interprets, paraphrases, predicts, rewrites, summarizes, translates.
Applying: Use a concept in a new situation or unprompted use of an abstraction. Applies what was learned in the classroom into novel situations in the work place.	Examples: Use a manual to calculate an employee's vacation time. Apply laws of statistics to evaluate the reliability of a written test. Key Words: applies, changes, computes, constructs, demonstrates, discovers, manipulates, modifies, operates, predicts, prepares, produces, relates, shows, solves, uses.
Analyzing: Separates material or concepts into component parts so that its organizational structure may be understood. Distinguishes between facts and inferences.	Examples: Troubleshoot a piece of equipment by using logical deduction. Recognize logical fallacies in reasoning. Gathers information from a department and selects the required tasks for training. Key Words: analyzes, breaks down, compares, contrasts, diagrams, deconstructs, differentiates, discriminates, distinguishes, identifies, illustrates, infers, outlines, relates, selects, separates.
Evaluating: Make judgments about the value of ideas or materials.	Examples: Select the most effective solution. Hire the most qualified candidate. Explain and justify a new budget. Key Words: appraises, compares, concludes, contrasts, criticizes, critiques, defends, describes, discriminates, evaluates, explains, interprets, justifies, relates, summarizes, supports.
Creating: Builds a structure or pattern from diverse elements. Put parts together to form a whole, with emphasis on creating a new meaning or structure.	Examples: Write a company operations or process manual. Design a machine to perform a specific task. Integrates training from several sources to solve a problem. Revises and process to improve the outcome. Key Words: categorizes, combines, compiles, composes, creates, devises, designs, explains, generates, modifies, organizes, plans, rearranges, reconstructs, relates, reorganizes, revises, rewrites, summarizes, tells, writes.

Instructional Strategy Selection Chart

Instructional Strategy	Cognitive Domain (Bloom, 1956)	Affective Domain (Krathwohl, Bloom, & Masia, 1973)	Psychomotor Domain (Simpson, 1972)
Lecture, reading, audio/visual, demonstration, or guided observations, question and answer period	1. Knowledge	1. Receiving phenomena	1. Perception 2. Set
Discussions, multimedia CBT, Socratic didactic method, reflection. Activities such as surveys, role playing, case studies, fishbowls, etc.	2. Comprehension 3. Application	2. Responding to phenomena	3. Guided response 4. Mechanism
On-the-Job-Training (OJT), practice by doing (some direction or coaching is required), simulated job settings (to include CBT simulations)	4. Analysis	3. Valuing	5. Complex response
Use in real situations. Also may be trained by using several high level activities coupled with OJT.	5. Synthesis	4. Organize values into priorities	6. Adaptation
Normally developed on own (informal learning) through self-study or learning through mistakes, but mentoring and coaching can speed the process.	6. Evaluation	5. Internalizing values	7. Origination

The chart does not cover all possibilities, but most activities should fit in. For example, self-study could fall under reading, audio visual, and/or activities, depending upon the type of program you design.

Creative Writing Competition

My Creativity club recently held the Creative Writing competition. I was quite impressed by the enthusiasm and work of the students....  I want to share some of their work which had won the competition....

Students only submitted the illustration along with the short story. 

This is how we gave recognition to their work. By adding quotes. It was quite surprising that 1st and 2nd prize was won by two sisters... Congratulations!

                  This illustration won the 1st Prize... the quote done by the organizer student.

                         
                             This illustration won the 2nd Prize.....

                                

                               this one of course the 3rd prize..... 

Reflection on CALL

Today I'm going to write about my reflection of the CALL course.

Podcast: Role of Modern Men

Finally Done!!